Category: 12th botany

Bentham and Hooker classification of plants

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date December 8, 2017
No Comments on Bentham and Hooker classification of plants

12 biology Bentham-and-Hooker

Bentham and Hooker classification of plants

Bentham and Hooker

Back to botany topic list

Bentham and Hooker

It is a natural system of classification and is based on important characters of the plants.

Even today this system is being followed in India, United Kingdom and several other Commonwealth countries.

It is also used in a number of herbaria and botanical gardens all over the world and widely accepted classification of seeded plants.

It was proposed by two English botanists George Bentham (1800-1884) and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911).

Their system of classification was published in ‘Genera Plantarum’ in three volumes and they had described 97,205 species of seeded plants in 202 orders (now referred to as families).

In Bentham and Hooker classification of plants, the present day ‘orders’ were referred to as ‘cohorts’ and ‘families’ as ‘orders’.

The seeded plants are divided into three classes – Dicotyledonae, Gymnospermae and Monocotyledonae.

Class I Dicotyledonae

Seeds of dicotyledonous plants contain two cotyledons. Leaves show reticulate venation.

Flowers are tetramerous or pentamerous having four or five members in various floral whorls respectively.

It includes three sub-classes – Polypetalae, Gamopetalae and Monochlamydeae.

Sub-class I Polypetalae

Plants having flowers with free petals come under polypetalae. The flowers are with distinct calyx and corolla.

It is further divided into three series – Thalamiflorae, Disciflorae and Calyciflorae.

Series (i) Thalamiflorae

It includes plants having flowers with dome or conical thalamus. Ovary is superior.

Thalamiflorae includes 6 orders and 34 families. The family Malvaceae is placed in the order Malvales.

Series (ii) Disciflorae

It includes flowers having prominent disc shaped thalamus below the ovary.

Ovary is superior. Disciflorae is divided into 4 orders and 23 families.

Series (iii) Calyciflorae

It includes plants having flowers with cup shaped thalamus. Ovary is superior or inferior sometimes half inferior.

Calyciflorae includes 5 orders and 27 families.

Sub-class 2. Gamopetalae

Plants having flowers with petals, which are either partially or completely fused to one another are placed under Gamopetalae.

The sepals and petals are distinct. Gamopetalae is further divided into three series – Inferae, Heteromerae and Bicarpellatae.

Series (i) Inferae

The flowers are epigynous and ovary is inferior. Inferae includes 3 orders and 9 families.

Series (ii) Heteromerae

The flowers are hypogynous and ovary is superior with more than two carpels. Heteromerae includes 3 orders and 12 families.

Series (iii) Bicarpellatae

The flowers are hypogynous and ovary is superior with two carpels only. Bicarpellatae includes 4 orders and 24 families.

The family Solanaceae is placed in the order Polemoniales.

Sub-class 3. Monochlamydeae

Plants having flowers with single whorl of perianth are placed under Monochlamydeae.

Flowers are incomplete. The sepals and petals are not distinguished and they are called perianth.

Tepals are present in two whorls. Sometimes both the wholrs are absent. Monochlamydeae includes 8 series and 36 families.

The family Euphorbiaceae is placed in the series Unisexuales.

Class 2 Gymnospermae

The members of this class have naked ovules or seeds.

Ovary is absent and gymnospermae includes three families – Gnetaceae, Coniferae and Cycadaceae.

Class 3 Monocotyledonae

Seeds of monocotyledonous plants contain only one cotyledon. Leaves show parallel venation.

Flowers are trimerous having three members in various floral whorls. The plants have fibrous root system.

The Monocotyledonae has 7 series and 34 families. The family Musaceae is placed in the series Epigynae.

Merits of Bentham and Hooker classification of plants

1. Bentham and Hooker classification is the most natural system, based on actual examination of

2. The description of plants is quite accurate and

3. As it is easy to follow, it is used as a key for the identification of plants in Kew herbarium and several other herbaria of the

4. Although this system is natural, most of the aspects of this system show affinity to modern concepts of For example, the order Ranales, which is the first order in the arrangement of plants, has been given a primitive position in this system. Recent taxonomic findings also indicate that the members of Ranales are the most primitive living angiosperms.

5. The placement of monocotyledonae after the dicotyledonae also appears to be in accordance with the evolutionary trends.

Demerits of Bentham and Hooker classification of plants

1. The placement of Gymnospermae in between dicotyledonae and monocotyledonae is an

2. Several important floral characters have been neglected in this

3. Advanced family Orchidaceae has been considered as primitive among monocotyledons and it is placed in the beginning of the

4. In this system, some closely related families have been separated and placed under different For example, all the families of series Curvembryeae of Monochlamydeae are related to Caryophyllaceae of series Thalamiflorae of Polypetalae, but they are separated.

5. Unrelated families have been grouped nearer. For example, Podostemaceae of series Multiovulatae aquaticae of Monochlamydeae deserves a place in Rosales of the series Calyciflorae of Similarly Laurineae of series Daphnales of Monochlamydeae deserves a place in Ranales of the series Thalamiflorae of polypetalae. Thus, two unrelated families Podostemaceae and Laurineae are grouped nearer.

Back to botany topic list

Question:

Explain briefly about Bentham and Hooker classification of plants?

Describe the Merits of Bentham and Hooker classification of plants?

List the Demerits of Bentham and Hooker classification of plants?

How Bentham and Hooker classify plants?

Click here for extra details about Bentham and hooker system in classification of plants.

Other links

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS, TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

BIOSYSTEMATICS NOMENCLATURE

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE, ICBN

HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

Dicot Families – MALVACEAE

Botanical description of Hibiscus and Economical importance of Malvaceae

Solanaceae – Datura metal and Economic importance

Euphorbiaceae and Ricinus communis and its Economic importance

Musaceae – Musa paradisiaca and its Economic Importance

12th botany neet school

HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date December 8, 2017
1 Comment on HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

Herbaria and uses, Importance of Herbaria

HERBARIA AND Their USES

( Herbarium , HERBARIA AND ITS USES)

Back to botany topic list

Herbaria uses:

Herbarium is a collection of pressed, dried plant specimens mounted on specified sheets, identified and arranged in the order of an approved and well known system of classification.

It also refers to the institution where dried plant specimens are maintained and studied.

Example: Herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore.

A twig with leaves, inflorescence or flowers is collected from shrubs and trees.

In the case of herbs, the collected plant specimens should contain both vegetative and reproductive parts.

They are dried by keeping them between the folds of old newspapers.

It is necessary to change these papers at regular intervals, until the plants are well dried.

The plant specimens along with their parts are dried in a plant press.

It consists of two boards with straps, which help in tightening the newspapers with specimens between the boards.

The dried specimens are pasted on the herbarium sheets of standard size 41 cm X 29 cm.

The process of attaching dried and pressed plant specimens on herbarium sheets is known as mounting of specimens.

All the mounted specimens are sprayed with fungicide like 0.1% solution of Mercuric chloride.

To protect these dried specimens from the attack of insects, pesticides such as naphthalene and carbon di-sulphide can be used.

The heavy parts of plants such as seeds and fruits are kept in packets and attached to the sheets.

When a new name for a species is suggested, it is the rule that plant specimens of the same should necessarily be deposited in a recognized herbarium.

These specimens are called type specimens. The name of the family is always based on type genus.

These specimens are most valuable part of herbarium and they are handled with special care. They are stored in fire-proof cabinets.

If the herbarium specimens are handled with special care, they will be in good condition for a long time.

Precautions should be taken against attacks of fungi and insects.

It is always better to use chemicals, which can repel the insects from herbarium specimens.

The herbarium is always accompanied with a label.

It carries the information about the botanical name of the plant, name of the family, habit, place and date of collection and name of the person who collected the specimens.

HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

Importance of herbaria

Herbarium is a source of knowledge about the flora of a region or a locality or a country.
It is a data store in which the information on plants are available.
The type specimens help in the correct identification of plants.
It provides materials for taxonomic and anatomical studies.
Typical pollen characters have been well emphasized in taxonomy.
Morphological characters of the pollen remain unaltered even after storage upto nearly 200 years.
It is very much useful in the study of cytology, structure of DNA, numerical taxonomy, chaemotaxonomy, etc.
It acts as a reservoir of gene pool studies. Because of its importance, several herbaria have been established at centres.

Back to botany topic list

What are the uses of herbaria ?

Describe the importance of herbaria ?

List the National and international Importance of herbaria ?

Click here to know the more details of herbaria

Other links

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS, TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

BIOSYSTEMATICS NOMENCLATURE

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE, ICBN

Bentham and Hooker’s classification of plants

Dicot Families – MALVACEAE

Botanical description of Hibiscus and Economical importance of Malvaceae

Solanaceae – Datura metal and Economic importance

Euphorbiaceae and Ricinus communis and its Economic importance

Musaceae – Musa paradisiaca and its Economic Importance

12th botany neet school

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE, ICBN

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date December 7, 2017
No Comments on BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE, ICBN

Binomial nomenclature, ICBN

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Back to botany topic list

The system of naming the plants on a scientific basis is known as botanical nomenclature.

Naming of the plants is useful in assigning their identity and relationship.

Before the middle of the eighteenth century, the names of plants were commonly polynomials

i.e. they were composed of several words in series constituting more or less the description of the plant.

This can be illustrated with the example of Caryophyllum.

The name given was Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis meaning Caryophyllum growing on rocks, having grass like leaves with umbellate corymbose inflorescence.

Since lengthy names are difficult to remember and use, attempts were made to shorten these names.

Carolus Linnaeus suggested a system of binomial nomenclature.

Although the binomial system was introduced by Gaspard Bauhin as early as 1623, it had properly been made use by Linnaeus in his book Species Plantarum.

In binomial nomenclature, every species is given a name of two words.

For example, the binomial nomenclature of mango tree is Mangifera indica. Here the first word Mangifera refers to the genus and the second word indica to the species.

The two words in combination comprise the name of the plant. Thus the binomial is a binary name.

Hence, from the days of Linnaeus, two different kinds of plants could not have the same generic and specific names.

Back to botany topic list

Click here for extra details

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

Back to botany topic list

In 1930, the fifth International Botanical Congress was held at Cambridge, England to frame rules and regulations for naming plants.

The twelfth meeting was held at Leningrad, USSR in July 1975.

Based on the resolutions of this meeting, the current system of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature ICBN was adapted from 1978.

Some of the salient features of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature ICBN:

The generic name is a singular The first letter of generic name is always written in capital.
The specific epithet is an adjective and is always written with small letters. It is derived from many sources and may consist of one or two words.

Example: Oryza sativa and Oldenlandia albo- nervia.

The name should be short, precise and easy to.
The binomials are printed in italics or The generic and specific epithets are underlined separately.

Example: Abutilon neilgherrense or Abutilon neilgherrense.

When new names are given to any plant, then the herbarium preparation of the same specimen with its original description is preserved in any recognized herbarium.
This specimen is denoted as type specimen. It is to be preserved on herbarium.
The person who publishes the description of any plant for the first time or giving a new name to a plant is considered
The name of plant should bear the author’s abbreviated name at the end of specific epithet. This is called author citation.
Abbreviations were made for eminent taxonomists.
The name Linnaeus was abbreviated to L. or Linn., Robert Brown to R.Br. and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker to Hook. eg. Malva sylvestris Linn.
The original description of the plant should accompany the latin.
If naming the plant is from a source of error, it is regarded as ambiguous It is also called nomen ambiguum and is completely ignored from use.
If the generic and specific epithets are the same, it is called tautonym.

Example: Sassafras sassafras. Such names are not accepted in the system of nomenclature.

Back to botany topic list

QUESTION FOR THE TOPIC:

Write a brief note about International Code of Botanical Nomenclature ICBN?

Click here for extra details

Other links

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS, TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

BIOSYSTEMATICS NOMENCLATURE

HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

Bentham and Hooker’s classification of plants

Dicot Families – MALVACEAE

Botanical description of Hibiscus and Economical importance of Malvaceae

Solanaceae – Datura metal and Economic importance

Euphorbiaceae and Ricinus communis and its Economic importance

Musaceae – Musa paradisiaca and its Economic Importance

12th botany neet school

Biosystematics nomenclature

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date December 7, 2017
No Comments on Biosystematics nomenclature

Biosystematics nomenclature

Back to botany topic list

Taxonomy is mainly concerned with the observation of similarities and differences that exist in the morphology of a vast number of plants.

But it has now been accepted that in general, morphological characters alone are not the criteria for distinguishing and classifying plants from one another.

One has to take into consideration, the characteristics and differences from other disciplines of science such as cytology, genetics, physiology, ecology, phytogeography, phytochemistry, numerical taxonomy, molecular biology, breeding systems and any other available sources for classification.

Biosystematics nomenclature may be defined as ‘taxonomy of living populations’.

In the present day classification of plants, species is taken as basic unit and it is the local breeding population.

Numerous disciplines of science thus provide innumerable number of datas of all the characters of the individual or a species.

This helps to clear problems concerning those plants that differ in their interrelationship, classification and evolution.

It provides sufficient genetic variations that warrants separation so as to recognise them as a separate taxon based on their evolutionary progress.

Variations in a species may be due to several factors such as genetic, ecological, physiological, population dynamic study and many other factors.

All the evidences provided by the biosystematist are taken for analysis and considered by the classical taxonomist in order to arrive at any controversial problems that may arise during their phylogenetic classification based on their evolution of species under study.

Aims of Biosystematics nomenclature

Camp and Gily 1943, coined the term ‘biosystematics’. The aims of biosystematics nomenclature are as follows.

To delimit the naturally occurring biotic community of plant.
To recognise the various groups as separate biosystematic categories such as ecotypes, ecospecies, cenospecies and comparium.

Methods in the study of Biosystematics nomenclature

Three important methods are as follows.

It involves thorough sampling analysis of the taxonomic species under. Its population, cultivation, geographical range, cytology, anatomy, palynology, phytochemistry. Chromosomal number and behaviour are keenly observed and studied for finding any genetic differences that may arise among different populations.
It includes determination of ability of different populations to interbreed. Among one another to form a variant species with its vigor and fertility. This will reveal the presence or absence of breeding barriers between taxa at various levels.
It involves the study of similarity of chromosomes in the hybrids during meiosis.

Back to botany topic list

QUESTION FROM THIS TOPICS:

What is Biosystematics nomenclature ?

What are the aims of Biosystematics nomenclature ?

List the methods in the study of Biosystematics nomenclature ?

Click Here for Extra Details

Ecotype Ecospecies Cenospecies Comparium

Ecotype, Ecospecies, Cenospecies, Comparium

Back to botany topic list

Ecotype

Ecotype is the basic unit in biosystematics, adapted to a particular environment but capable of producing fertile hybrids with other ecotypes.

This ecotype is regarded as equivalent to subspecies of classical taxonomy.

Ecospecies

The ecospecies is a group of plants comprising one or more ecotypes within the cenospecies, whose members are able to interchange their genes.

Ecospecies is regarded as equivalent to species of classical taxonomy.

Cenospecies

Cenospecies is a group of plants representing one or more ecospecies of common evolutionary origin.

It is regarded as equivalent to subgenus of classical taxonomy.

Cenospecies of the same comparium are separated by genetic barriers and all hybrids between them are sterile.

Comparium

Comparium is composed of one or more cenospecies that are not able to intercross.

Complete genetic barriers exist between different comparia.

The informations obtained from the above mentioned studies were compared with the data obtained through comparative morphology.

And geographical distributions resulted in the recognition and identification of a total variety or species.

To conclude, biosystematic study in the contemporary and modern taxonomy plays a vital role in separating and solving some of the problems that may develop in the identification of plants at the level of species.

Biosystematist provides all the necessary data in solving the real position of species that was in controversy.

Back to botany topic list

QUESTION :

What is Ecotype ?
Explain about Ecospecies ?
What is Cenospecies ?
Explain Comparium ?

More Detail about Ecotype Click here

Other links

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS, TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE, ICBN

HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

Bentham and Hooker’s classification of plants

Dicot Families – MALVACEAE

Botanical description of Hibiscus and Economical importance of Malvaceae

Solanaceae – Datura metal and Economic importance

Euphorbiaceae and Ricinus communis and its Economic importance

Musaceae – Musa paradisiaca and its Economic Importance

12th botany neet school

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS, TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date December 7, 2017
No Comments on TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS, TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

Back to botany topic list

INTRODUCTION to TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

Taxonomy is concerned with the laws governing the classification of plants.

The term taxonomy includes two Greek words taxis – arrangement and nomos – laws. Plant taxonomy is other name for systematic botany.

Classification, identification, description and naming the plants are the bases of plant taxonomy.

The taxonomic knowledge about the plants is based on their form and structure.

The knowledge gained through taxonomy is useful in the fields of medicine, agriculture, forestry, etc.

The ultimate aim of classification is to arrange plants in an orderly sequence based upon their similarities.

The closely related plants are kept within a group and unrelated plants are kept far apart in separate groups.

The other aim of classification is to establish phylogenetic relationships among the different groups of plants.

The plants that are closely related show more similarities than differences.

The earliest systems of classification were simple and based on one or few characters. They gave importance to vegetative characters.

The later systems of classification gave more importance to floral characters because floral characters are more stable and permanent.

Questions from TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS:

What is taxonomy of Angiosperms?
What is the other name for plant taxonomy?
List the any three fields in which taxonomy is used?

search by students

12th standard botany explanation TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

notes for 12th std state board bio botany

bio botany +2 notes and study materials

For more details Click Here

TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION IN TAXONOMY

TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

Types of classification for taxonomists:

The different types of classification proposed by earlier taxonomists can be broadly categorized into three systems– artificial, natural and phylogenetic.

Artificial system

It was based on one or at most only a few superficial characters. In 1753, Carolus Linnaeus of Sweden published his book “ Species Plantarum” wherein he described 7,300 species.

He divided the plants into 24 classes based on number, union, length and certain other characters of stamens. Hence, this system is also known as sexual system of classification.

In those days, it was an important over other systems of classification. The importance of floral characters was felt by Linnaeus and his classification was more important than others.

The main defect of this system is that totally unrelated plants are brought together in a single group and those that are closely related plants are placed in widely separated groups.

For example, plants belonging to Zingiberaceae of Monocotyledons and that of Anacardiaceae of Dicotyledons had been placed in one group called Monandria, as these possess only one stamen.

Another defect of this system was that no importance was given to either natural or phylogenetic relationships among different groups of plants.

TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION – NATURAL SYSTEM

The explanation about natural system in classification of taxonomy is provided below

Natural system

In this system of classification, plants are classified based on their natural affinities. More number of characters are taken into consideration in this system.

It is mainly based on all the informations that were available during the time of direct observation of plants.

The most important natural system of classification of seed plants was proposed by two British botanists George Bentham and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker.

It helps to determine the relationships between various groups of plants. However, it does not attempt to bring out evolutionary relationships among different groups of plants.

PHYLOGENETIC SYSTEM – TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

Phylogenetic system

This system is based on evolutionary sequence as well as genetic relationships among different groups of plants.

In addition to this, it employs as many taxonomic characters as possible. Charles Darwin’s concept of Origin of Species had given enough stimulus for the creation of phylogenetic system of classification.

Adolf Engler (1844-1930) and Karl Prantl (1849-1893) of Germany published a phylogenetic system in their monograph on “Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien”.

In this system, floral characters such as single whorl of perianth or no perianth and unisexual flowers pollinated by wind were considered as primitive characters when compared to perianth with two whorls, bisexual flowers pollinated by insects.

According to them, members of Asteraceae of dicotyledons and Orchidaceae of monocotyledons were highly advanced.

Back to botany topic list

QUESTIONS :

What is natural system?
Explain in detail about types of classification?
explain briefly the classification of taxonomy?
What is artificial system?
What is Phylogenetic system?
Natural classification in taxonomy
Artificial classification in taxonomy
Phylogenetic system of classification

For extra details Click here

Other links

BIOSYSTEMATICS NOMENCLATURE

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE, ICBN

HERBARIA AND ITS USES IMPORTANCE OF HERBARIUM

Bentham and Hooker’s classification of plants

Dicot Families – MALVACEAE

Botanical description of Hibiscus and Economical importance of Malvaceae

Solanaceae – Datura metal and Economic importance

Euphorbiaceae and Ricinus communis and its Economic importance

Musaceae – Musa paradisiaca and its Economic Importance

12th botany neet school

12th Standard Bio Botany Higher Secondary School Tamil Nadu State Board

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date December 7, 2017
1 Comment on 12th Standard Bio Botany Higher Secondary School Tamil Nadu State Board

12th STANDARD BIO BOTANY BIOLOGY Higher Secondary Second Year Tamil Nadu State Board SYLLABUS

UNIT – 1 Taxonomy of Angiosperms

Types of classifications – artificial – natural – phylogenetic. Biosystematics – binomial nomenclature – herbarium and its uses. Bentham and Hooker’s classification of plants – families – Malvaceae – Solanaceae – Euphorbiaceae – Musaceae and their Economic importance.

UNIT 1 AUDIO EXPLANATION:

UNIT – 2 Plant anatomy

Tissue and tissue systems – anatomy of monocot and dicot roots – anatomy of monocot and dicot stems – anatomy of dicot leaf.

UNIT 2 AUDIO EXPLANATION:

UNIT – 3 Cell biology and genetics

Chromosomes – structure and types – genes and genomes – linkage and crossing over – gene mapping – recombination of chromosomes – mutation – chromosomal aberrations – DNA as genetic material – structure of DNA – replication of DNA – structure of RNA and its types.

UNIT 3 AUDIO EXPLANATION:

STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME – CELL BIOLOGY
Types of chromosomes with special types
Gene and genome
Linkage and mechanism of linkage
Crossing over, gene mapping and recombination of chromosome
Mutation and classification of mutation
Mutagenic agents and its significance
Structural Chromosomal aberrations
Numerical chromosomal aberrations
Role of DNA
Structure of DNA and Function of DNA
Replication of DNA
Structure of RNA and Types of RNA

UNIT – 4 Biotechnology

Recombinant DNA technology – transgenic plants and microbes – plant tissue culture and its application – protoplasmic fusion – single cell protein.

UNIT 4 AUDIO EXPLANATION:

UNIT – 5 Plant physiology

Photosynthesis – significance – site of photosynthesis – photochemical and biosynthetic phases – electron transport system – cyclic and non-cyclic and Cphotophosphorylation – C pathways – photorespiration – factors – saprophytic – parasitic and insectivorous plants – chemosynthesis – respiration – mechanism of glycolysis – Krebs cycle – pentose phosphate pathway – anaerobic respiration – respiratory quotient – compensation pointaffecting photosynthesis – mode of nutrition – autotrophic – heterotrophic – fermentation. Plant growth – growth regulators – phytohormones – auxins – gibberellins – cytokinins – ethylene and abscisic acid. Photoperiodism and vernalization.

UNIT 5 AUDIO EXPLANATION:

UNIT – 6 Biology in human welfare

Food production – breeding experiments – improved varieties and role of biofertilizers. Crop diseases and their control – biopesticides – genetically modified food – biowar – biopiracy – biopatent – sustained agriculture and medicinal plants including microbes. Economic importance – food yielding (rice) – oil yielding (groundnut) – fibre yielding (cotton) and timber yielding (teak) plants.