Category: 12th Zoology

Scope of Genetic Engineering – Scope of Bioinformatics

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date November 8, 2018
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Scope of Genetic Engineering – Scope of Bioinformatics

Scope of Genetic Engineering

i. To manufacture drugs and other life saving bioproducts such as insulin,
growth hormones, interferons, cytokines and monoclonal antibodies.

ii. For environmental management to reduce or abate the pollution load in
soil or water.

iii. In waste recycling to increase productivity.

iv. In plant breeding by the incorporation of useful genes (nif genes = nitrogen
fixing genes).

v. In bringing pest resistance in agriculture crops. (Scope of Genetic Engineering)

vi. And in treatment of diseases by way of gene therapy etc.
Such genetic engineering and biotechnological processes involve
knowledge of enormous number of genes, their cooling and thier protein
sequences. Computers and newly evolved software packages are utilised
for these purposes. Thus biological studies are provided with a support from
electronic computers. This new integrated field constitutes Bioinformatics.

Scope of Bioinformatics

1. Bioinformatics helps to create an electronic database on genomes and
protein sequences from single celled organisms to multicellular organisms.
2. It provides techniques by which three-dimensional models of biomolecules
could be understood along with their structure and function.
3. It integrates mathematical, statistical and computational methods to analyse
biological, biochemical and biophysical data.
4. Bioinformatics deals with methods for starting, retrieving and
analysing biological data such as nuclei acid (DNA/RNA) and protein
sequences, structure, functions pathways and genetic interactions.
5. The computational methods in bioinformatics extend information for probing
not only at genome level or protein level but up to whole organism level, or
ecosystem level of organization.
6. It provides genome level data for understanding normal biological
processes and explains the malfunctioning of genes leading to diagnosing of
diseases and designing of new drugs.

Bioinformatics

Definition :

Bioinformatics deals with the creation and maintenance of
databases of biological information such as the nucleic acid, gene sequences
and protein sequences. It has its own applications in gene therapy,
diagnostics, drug designing, crop improvement, biochemical processes etc.
It involves the data analysis or creation of electronic databases on genomes
and protein molecules.

History of Bioinformatics

From the beginning of the post Mendelian’s period, genetic principles
propounded by various geneticists have revealed the functional behaviour of discrete hereditary particles called the genes, in the expression of various
morphological (phenotypical) and biochemical traits of organisms. During
the last three decades, the advancement in molecular biology, the invention
of computers, ultra developments in scientific methodologies and introduction
of instrumentation at nano level, have paved the way for the origin of
bioinformatics.

The preliminary discoveries such as the amino acid sequence of
bovine insulin (1950s), nucleic acid sequence of yeast alaine tRNA with 77
bases (1960s); X-ray crystallographic structure of protein, formed the basis
and original databases for data entries and file making. With further
advancements made in computational methods , empolying rapid search
algorithms (BLAST) with hundreds of command options and input formats,
the birth of bioinformatical science has been made.

Applications of Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is a synergistic study of both biotechnology and
information technology. In biotechnology living organisms of micro level and
macro level organizations are employed, and manipulated towards
harvesting beneficial products to human. In recent years Biotechnology is
turning into an industrial science through genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering helps the scientists to incorporate a single gene
into an organism, and synthesize the desirable product without affecting other
genes and their functions. In this way the biological systems or the microbial
systems are manipulated

Gene therapy

The fact that genes can be cloned to several thousand copies through
genetic engineering has given rise to an entirely novel model of therapeutic
device viz., Gene therapy. Gene therapy involves the replacement of
corrective genes in place of defective genes in human. There are two types
of gene therapy. They are 1). Somatic cell gene therapy and 2). Germ line
cell gene therapy. Both may be employed for treating the inherited diseases.

In somatic cell gene therapy the patient’s cells are taken from blood or
bone marrow, or skin and brain, treated through genetic engineering and
then replaced to the patient. Somatic cells are non-reproductive cells. These
cells and their genes when corrected, the genetic changes will not be inherited
to their children. On the other hand, this type of treatment could cure diseases
caused by single gene mutations.In this therapy, retroviruses are employed
as carriers of the genes. Their genetic material, RNA is copied into DNA. To
produce effective vectors certain essential genes are spliced out from the viruses. This will render the virus harmless and allow space for the therapeutic
genes to be inserted. Hundreds of millions of copies of the genes are needed
for somatic cell gene therapy. To carry them, the vectors should also be
multiplied in equal numbers. Experimentally, such enormous copies of virus
vectors are made using helper virus. The integrated vector and the cloned
gene is used in somatic cell gene therapy. Somatic cell gene therapy has been
successful in animals, so far.

Germ line cell gene therapy

The gene therapy is extended to reproductive or germ line cells in
order to prevent the genetic defects being inherited to children. The
technique has been shown to work positively in animals. In this, DNA is
injected into the nuclei of single celled embryos of cows, mice and sheep.

The DNA may get integrated into the chromosomes. The intergrated DNA,
ie., the new genes can direct the synthesis of new proteins into animals which
develop from these embryos. Germ line therapy has already been incorporated
developed in human embryos. Genes are inherited likewise
through retroviral vectors into human germ cells. Germ line therapy in
human is feasible, at any time, since eggs, sperms and single celled
embryos can be collected and stored by deep freezing using liquid nitrogen.
In vitro fertilization also may favour the above therapy. However, the therapy
is still underway.

Transgenic organisms

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

In genetic engineering, the methods of gene transfer lead to the
production of transgenic animals and plants. These are called genetically
modified organisms. Transgenism has been recognized as one of the thrust
areas of biotechnology. (Transgenic organisms)

Gene transfer Methods

The uptake of genes by the cells in animals is called trans fection.
The transfected cells are used for a variety of purposes such as 1. The
production of chemicals and pharmaceutical drugs, 2. Study of structure and
function of genes and 3. Production of transgenic animals of
commercial value such as livestock animals and fishes. It is also called
molecular farming. In transfection, fertilized eggs/embryos or the cultured
cells are employed. (Transgenic organisms)

Transfer of genes to Fertilized eggs or embryos

The transfection of fertilized egg involves either the transfer of whole
nuclei or whole chromosomes; or their fragments or the DNA
segments. (Transgenic organisms)

A. For the transfer of whole nuclei, the cells are treated with cytochalasin B
and enucleated. The enucleated cells are incubated with the desired
karyoplasts (nuclei) for induction in presence of polyethylene glycol (PEG).

B. For transfer of whole chromosomes, metaphase cells are subjected to
hypotonic lysis and individual chromosomes or fragments are isolated and
then incubated with whole cells/eggs for transfection.

C. Microinjection of DNA segments : In this the fertilized eggs are injected
with DNA segments for integration. DNA integrated eggs are then used for
getting transgenic animals. D. Transfer of genes to cultured cells : In this stem cells are used. The stem cells are undifferentiated precursor cells. In these cultured cells, the gene can be delivered through vectors like retroviruses or directly by techniques such as microinjection using particle gun, electroporation or by the use of liposomes.

Transgenic animals have been produced in a variety of animals such
as mice, rabbits, sheeps, pigs, goats, cows, fishes etc.

Uses: (Transgenic organisms)

1. Transgenic animals are more efficient than their normal counterpart in feed
assimilation.
2. They exhibit faster growth and hence achieve the marketable size sooner.
3. Meat quality is good.
4. They are resistant to certain diseases.
5. They serve as bioreactors for obtaining valuable recombinant
proteins and pharmaceuticals from their milk or urine or blood.

Cloning

Cloning is an experimental technique wherein, a group of
genetically identical organisms is produced. Cloning of various
animals was has become possible due to knowledge gained in the field of
developmental biology and developmental genetics. It helped a lot, to
understand the genetic control over differentiation of cells and the
development of multicellular organisms.

Differentiation : In the development of multicellular animals the zygote
represents the progenitor cell of the future embryo. Multitudes of cells arise
from mitotic divisions of the fertilized egg cell. These cells later become
distinct cell types differing in form and function. This process is called
differentiation.

In the 1950s two embryologists R.Briggs and T.King developed a
technique called nuclear transplantation. The nuclei from frog egg cells are
taken out with a micropipette (enucleation) and replaced with nuclei taken
from the cells of an embryo the same animal. The recipient cells developed
into normal tadpoles and frogs with all the different cell types. The investigators,
with the above technique produced a number of genetically identical
individuals.

Cells of early embryo which are capable of complete
development and producing the whole organisms are said to be totipotent However, experiments by J. Gurdon revealed that nuclei from older
embryos and tadpoles when transplanted to the enucleated egg cells
affected the developmental potential.

The older the individual from which the nuclei were taken, less the recipient egg cell was able to develop normally. His experiments also revealed that cells from different parts of the embryo differed in the degree of successful development attained after nuclear transplantation.

It is learnt that cells of embryos at a later stage of development switch over from totipotent state to pluripotent state. The later gives rise to development of specific tissues or organs.

Cloning of Sheep (Mechanism) :

Dr. Ian Wilmut has produced a cloned sheep called Dolly by nuclear
transplantation method. To produce cloned sheep he took the udder cell
which is a somatic cell with diploid number of chromosomes. An egg cell
was also removed from a donor sheep. The egg cell cannot grow into a new
sheep on its own because it only has half a set of chromosomes(n). The
body cell cannot grow into a new sheep on its own because it is not a
reproductive cell. So udder cell nucleus(2n) was removed. Similarly the egg
cell nucleus (n) was also removed. The nucleus of the somatic cell (Udder)
was injected into the enucleated egg. The egg after the nuclear transplantation comes to possess full set of chromosomes viz. the 2n
diploid. The egg was then transplanted back into the uterus of the sheep
from which it was removed. The egg also can be transplanted to a new
surrogate mother for development. The egg cell grew and developed into a
sheep (Dolly). This cloned sheep is genetically identical to the donor sheep,
which donated the diploid nucleus of its somatic cell and not the sheep which
donated the egg cell.

Ethical Issues, Merits and Demerits of cloning :-

1. Cloning of animals is considered as an unethical and unnatural
technique by some people.
2. It is feared that attempts to clone human may lead to the birth/production
of wrong persons.
3. Cloning cannot produce children like the children born to genetic mothers.
Variations in traits are bound to appear.
4. When organisms are created by cloning from somatic cells of the adult,
the longevity of the new born, disease tolerance capacity are some criteria to
be considered. Cloned animals have also developed diseases like arthritis.
5. Cloning also leads to wastage of egg cells. In the cloning of Cat, 200 egg
cells were used and 57 were implanted. Out of that only one cloned cat
survived to birth.
6. Cloned animals may have health problems. They may die at a much earlier
age than the rest of the species. So cloned animals from
somatic cells of adult, may have short life span.
7. Among the benefits of cloning, special mention should be made
regarding its role in biodiversity. Cloning will help to maintain biodiversity. It
can bring back even the animals which have become extinct recently and
safe guard all endangered species facing extinction.
8. Though human cloning has its own ethical problems, the
principle could be used to grow new organs from the cloned stem cells. Such
organ culture may solve transplantation problems, such as tissue incompatibility, tissue rejection, harmful immune reactions etc. Many human
lives could be saved.

Human Genome Project (HGP)

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date November 7, 2018
No Comments on Human Genome Project (HGP)

Human Genome Project (HGP)

Human genome project involves the human genome programmes to
understand the genetic composition and genetic instruction that make up a human. The human genome is nothing but the DNA that resides in every
human cell. The location and composition of 30,000 (thirty thousand) genes
in human have been identified by sequencing the genome. It is known that the
genes carry the information for the synthesis of various proteins. These proteins
take up different profiles such as enzymes, hormones and antigens, which
are responsible for various physiological and biochemical functions. The
completion of the human genome project, by determining the DNA
sequence of all the 23 pairs of chromosomes is a turning point and a break
through in biology and medicine.

Human gene bank / genome database

Human gene bank or the genome database is the collection of
sequenced genes and cataloging of them for future use. They represent the
fundamental data.

Proteomics

Human genome analysis involves the analysis of proteins. Analysing
different proteins and locating them in cells and identifying their respective
genes, which encode them in the cells, represent the science of Proteomics.
For identifying the proteins, the cells, mRNAs are probed. Researchers have
identified about 60000 (Sixty thousand) different m-RNAs in human beings.
From the mRNAs the respective genes/DNA are traced. The above said
DNA is known as cDNA (Complementary DNA).

In the human genome project many disease related genes have been
mapped to specific chromosomal regions.

Protein coding genes

In the human genome project, proteins of different families which are
involved in development and cellular processes such as neuronal
function, homeostasis, immune function and cytoskeletal complexity have been
identified.

Significance and Benefits of HGP

1. The sequence of human genome will enable geneticists to cure the killer
diseases like cancer.
2. It may enable us to understand more about the diseases and thereby to
design drugs.
3. HGP aids in diagnosis of defective genes that cause disease.
4. As HGP may serve as a tool to Eugenical concept, scientists can
create superior, disease free human beings in future.
5. It helps in somatic cell gene therapy and germ line gene therapy.

Genetic Diseases

1. Sickle cell anaemia : (Genetic Diseases)

Sickle cell anaemia is a genetic syndrome caused by an autosomal
mutant allele Hbs. In homozygous condition (Hbs Hbs), it causes the
production of an abnormal haemoglobin called haemoglobin S. The
normal haemolobin is designated as HbA (HbAHbA). Sickle cell persons with
the genotype HbsHbs suffer from a fatal haemolytic anaemia. The
patient dies due to damaged heart, kidney, spleen and brain as a result of
clogged blood vessels or vascular obstruction. Persons with heterozygous
genotype HbA Hbs are said to be carriers and they survive.

2. Thalassemia : (Genetic Diseases)

Thalassemia is an erythroblastic anaemia due to homozygous
recessive gene expression in children. Two types of this disease viz.,
thalassemia major and thalassemia minor exist. The former is the severe form
while the latter is its milder form. The homozygotes suffer from
severe thalassemia while all heterozygotes suffer from milder thalassemia.
The clinical manifestations of thalassemia include I) decrease in the bone
marrow activity, ii) peripheral haemolysis, iii) splenomegaly (enlarged spleen)
and hepatomegaly, (enlarged liver) etc. The thalassemic children die at the
age of seventeen.

3. Agammaglobulinemia : (Genetic Diseases)

Agammaglobulinaemia is a recessive gene disease, wherein
r-globulin synthesis fails to occur. In this disease, the patient shows a great
deficiency or total absence of plasma cells and unusual lymph nodes with
fewer lymphocytes than normal. The failure of antibody synthesis in this
disease, makes the subjects more prone to viral and bacterial infections
especially of the chest .This disease mostly affects boys.

4. Albinism : Genetic Diseases

It is an inherited disorder of melanin metabolism
characterized by the absence of melanin in the skin, hairs and eyes. The
clinical characteristics of this disease are the milk-white coloured skin and
marked photophobia. Albinism is an inborn error metabolic disease, In this, the genes by undergoing mutation do not produce particular enzymes, which
take part in the metabolic pathways. The metabolism of one amino acid
phenylalanine proceeds in chains of enzyme-mediated reactions. The change
or absence of enzyme due to defective genes, results in physiological
abnormalities. In albinism, complete lack of melanin pigment (a dark brown
pigment) causes the albino to suffer. The incidence of albinism in human has
been reported to be from 1:5000 to 1:25000. The albinism may be generalized
albinism, localized albinism of the eye (ocular albinism) or partial albinism
(skin and hair). The recessive genes ‘aa’ do not produce the tyrosinase
enzyme, which converts DOPA (3,4 – dihydroxy phenyl alanine) into melanin
in the melanocytes.

5. Huntington’s chorea : Genetic Diseases

This is a fatal disease caused by an autosomal dominant gene in human.
The onset of the disease is between 35 and 40 years of age. It is
characterized by uncontrolled jerking of the body due to involuntary
twitching of voluntary muscles. It leads to progressive degeneration of the
central nervous system accompanied by gradual mental and physical
deterioration. Huntington’s disease was the first completely dominant
human genetic disease to come to light. The affected gene is located on chromosome 4. Other characteristics of this disease are deterioration of intellectual faculty, depression, occasional hallucination and delusions and other psychological problems. This disease is incurable.

6. Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) : Genetic Diseases

This is an extremely rare inherited disease affecting children. The gene
for the disease called ADA (Adenine deaminase) is located on
chromosome 20. The children suffering from the syndrome completely lack
the immune defense mechanism against infection due to rapid death of all
white blood cells. SCID is also called Bubble Boy Syndrome. The child is
kept in a sterile bubble. Unless given bone marrow transplant, the child’s life
span is short lived.

DNA – Segmenting / Fragmenting

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date November 7, 2018
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DNA Segmenting / Fragmenting

DNA segmenting in genetic engineering refers to fragmenting of DNA
and sequencing or mapping the DNA in terms of its nucleotide
sequences. Chemical and enzymatic methods are available for the above. As
a result the genic and non-compartments of DNA can be identified.
In human beings, more than three hundred hereditary diseases have
been indentified. All these diseases have genetic background. Gene
mutations, chromosomal aberrations are the attributed reasons for the
manifestation of such genetic diseases in man. Most of them are congenital in
nature.

Pedigree analysis : Unlike animals, controlled crosses can not be made in
human beings. Hence human geneticists, resort to a scrutiny of
established matings. The scrutiny of established matings to obtain
information about the genetic characters / traits is called pedigree analysis.
Pedigree chart : Pedigree chart defines the history of a character in a family.
It is drawn up using certain standard symbols. It is also called as the Family
tree. Pedigree chart helps to identify and visualize the course of genetic diseases
in the progeny. This is especially true of diseases such as fibrosis and
phenylketonuria (PKU).

Restriction enzymes – Recombinant DNA Technology

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Post date November 7, 2018
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Restriction enzymes – Recombinant DNA Technology

The restriction enzymes cut the DNA molecule around the point of
symmetry. The above palindrome sequence is recognized by the
restriction enzyme derived from Escherechia coli, called EcoR1. It cuts the
DNA molecule into discrete fragment with staggered cut ends.

Recombinant DNA

The foreign DNA fragment isolated is made to recombine with the
plasmid DNA which is cleaved by the same restriction endonuclease. The
recombination of the two DNAs is effected by the DNA ligase enzyme. The
product formed is called recombinant plasmid or recombinant DNA.

Molecular cloning

The recombinant DNA must be introduced into a host cell, within
which it may replicate freely. Escherechia coli has been employed as a
suitable host to the above. Alongside, with the multiplication and growth of
the bacterium in the medium, copies of rDNA are also produced. In
molecular cloning, besides E.coli other microbes that have been employed
include Bacillus subtilis, Strptomyces sp., Saccharomyces cerevisieae etc.
When the rDNA copies are introduced into the host cells, (E. coli) a
few thousand of rDNA pieces may enter the cells. These cells are called
transformed cells. Each transformed cell grows a colony of its own in which
every member is genetically alike. These colonies are then distinguished and
recultured separately.

From the recultured colonies, the recombinant DNA is extracted from
lysed cells, purified and used. The first gene was cloned in 1973 by Hebert
Bayer and Stanely cohen of Stanford University, California of USA.

Application and Uses of Recombinant DNA Technology

1. Genetic engineering/recombinant DNA technology has enabled the
understanding of structure of eukaryotic genes and their components.
2. Genetically engineered bacteria are employed to synthesize certain vital
life saving drugs, hormones and antibiotics eg., Antiviral / anticancer interferons
; human growth hormone (HGH) somatostatin, etc.

3. Through recombinant DNA technology, the genotypes of plants are altered.
New transgenic plants which are resistant to diseases and pest attack
have been produced.
4. Genetic defects in animals as well as human could be corrected through
gene therapy.
5. Genetically engineered bacteria are called superbugs. Superbugs can degrade
several aromatic hydrocarbons, at the same time. They are employed
in clearing oil spills in the ocean. Thus these are used in pollution abatement.
The super bug was produced first by an Indian researcher Anand
Chakrabarthy in USA. He developed a strain of Pseudomonas bacterium to
clear up oil spills. The above superbug can destroy octanes, xylenes camphors
and toluenes.

Tools of Genetic Engineering

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date November 2, 2018
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Tools of Genetic Engineering :

Genetic engineering which involves isolation of a gene segment from
the whole genome, cloning of the gene into multiple copies and their
expression needs several biological tools. Some of them are given below. (Tools of Genetic Engineering)

1. Enzymes : a. Exonucleases, b. endonucleases, c. restriction endonucleases,
d. SI enzymes to convert the cohesive ends of single stranded DNA
fragments into blunt ends, e. DNA ligases, f. Alkaline phosphatase,
g.Reverse transcriptase, h. DNA polymerase etc. (Tools of Genetic Engineering)

2. Foreign DNA / Passenger DNA : It is a fragment of DNA molecule,
which is to be enzymatically isolated and cloned.

3. Cloning vectors : Vectors or vehicle DNA are those DNA that can carry
a foreign DNA fragment when inserted into it. The vectors generally used
are bacterial plasmids and bacteriophages. (Tools of Genetic Engineering)

Plasmids :

A plasmid is a circular DNA with about 200-300 nucleotides. It is
present in bacterial cells alongside their main chromosomes. A plasmid
sometimes can leave from one bacterial cell and enter another, through,
conjugation and thereby transfer genetic traits to the recepient cell.

The plasmid DNA inside a bacterium can replicate independently of the main
DNA and can depart from main genome dragging a piece of main DNA
along with it. It is called the bacterial DNA. A plasmid can sometimes fuse
with the main DNA. (Tools of Genetic Engineering)

Thus the plasmid seems to be an efficient gene exchanging
vehicle which the nature has produced.

Isolation of gene

In recombinant DNA technology, restriction endonucleases cut the
DNA double helix in very precise manner. They recognize specific base
sequences on DNA.

They cut each strand of DNA at a given place. These enzymes recognize specific DNA sequences which are called palindrome sequences. A palindrome refers to a base sequence that read the same on the two strands but in opposite directions. (Tools of Genetic Engineering)

For example if the base sequence on one strand in GAATTC read in 5’-3’ direction, the sequence on the opposite (complementary) strand is CTTAAG read in 3’-5’ direction. There is a point of symmetry within the palindrome. In the example given this point is in the center between the AT/TA. (Tools of Genetic Engineering)
5’ GAATTC 3’
3’ CTTAAG 5’

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Scope of Genetic Engineering – Scope of Bioinformatics

Scope of Genetic Engineering

Scope of Bioinformatics

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Bioinformatics

History of Bioinformatics

Applications of Bioinformatics

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Gene therapy

Germ line cell gene therapy

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Transgenic organisms

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Gene transfer Methods

Transfer of genes to Fertilized eggs or embryos

Uses: (Transgenic organisms)

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Cloning

Cloning of Sheep (Mechanism) :

Ethical Issues, Merits and Demerits of cloning :-

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Human Genome Project (HGP)

Human gene bank / genome database

Proteomics

Protein coding genes

Significance and Benefits of HGP

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Genetic Diseases

1. Sickle cell anaemia : (Genetic Diseases)

2. Thalassemia : (Genetic Diseases)

3. Agammaglobulinemia : (Genetic Diseases)

4. Albinism : Genetic Diseases

5. Huntington’s chorea : Genetic Diseases

6. Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) : Genetic Diseases

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

DNA Segmenting / Fragmenting

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Restriction enzymes – Recombinant DNA Technology

Recombinant DNA

Molecular cloning

Application and Uses of Recombinant DNA Technology

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology

Tools of Genetic Engineering :

Plasmids :

Isolation of gene

Related Topics in Zoology:

UNIT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Topic List Zoology