Category: 12th Zoology

Dislocation of joints

Dislocation is the total displacement of the articular end of the bone
from the joint cavity. The normal alignment of the bones becomes altered.
Various factors are attributed for bone and joint dislocations.

Dislocations Classification:

Dislocations are classified

1. Congenital, 2. Traumatic, 3. Pathological and 4. Paralytic.

Congenital deformities are due to geneticfactors or factors operating on the developing foetus. These are also called teratogenic or teratologic disorder.

Traumatic dislocation is due to a serious violence. It occurs in the
shoulder, elbow and hip.

Pathological dislocation is caused by some diseases like
tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of the hip may cause dislocation of the
acetabulum.

Paralytic dislocation occurs when a remarkable imbalance occurs
on the muscle power. e.g. Poliomyelitis.

Mechanism of fracture

A fracture can be caused either by direct violence or indirect
violence. Direct violence causes a fracture at the site of impact of the force.
Indirect violence fracture is one that is transmitted to a bone away from the
site of impact and producing the fracture there.

Torsion produces spiral or oblique fracture. It is important to understand the mechanism of fracture as it helps in deciding the manoeuvres for reducing further damages. When a man falls down from a building or from a coconut tree he sustains a fracture on bones and the spine. The fracture of bone is caused by direct violence and the fracture spine is caused by indirect violence.

Healing of Bones in fracture

It involves three phases, viz.,
1. Inflammatory phase 2. Reparative phase and 3. Remodelling phase.

1. Inflammatory Phase

When a fracture occurs, at the site of fracture the blood vessels get broken and the blood fills up the gap of the bone. This blood clots to form a haematoma. This process takes place in one to two days. The soft tissue of this region undergoes inflammation.

2. Repairative Phase

A stage of callus is formed. It bridges the gap and establishes contact between the ends of fractured bone. The callus is nothing but granulation of tissues around the site of fracture. This phase takes place about eight to twelve weeks.(Fig. 1.7)

3. Remodelling phase

Once the fracture is bridged by the callus tissue, the site of fracture undergoes remodelling by muscular and weight bearing stresses and slight deformity gets corrected by moulding. This remodelling takes up to one year.

Physiotherapy and rehabilitation

Physiotherapy is the therapaeutic exercise to make the limbs work
normally. Therapaeutic exercise is carried out by physiotherapists under the supervision of orthopaedic surgeon. The commom problem at the end of
fracture treatment is the wasting of muscles and stiffness of joints. These
two problems can be rectified by physiotherapy, by gradual exercises.

Fractures – Types of fractures

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date September 8, 2018
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Fractures

Bones and Joints

The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones. The bones along
with approximately 700 skeletal muscles, account for 50% of our body weight.
Bones provide protection and support. When two or more bones join
together, a joint or articulation is formed. Through several types of joints,
they help in movements.

Fractures

Fracture is defined as a break or crack in the bone. Trauma or injury
to the bones of human body is getting increased with the development of
industry and transportation. Trauma is the biggest killer and maimer of human
beings all over the world. Hippocrates in the 14th century B.C. described
the treatment of fractures and injuries to limbs. In India, the treatment of
fractures to limbs is still carried out by traditional bonesetters. Modern
methods of treatments are available. They are more scientific and
appropriate.

Types of fractures :

1.Green stick fracture : – This fracture occurs in the young bones of
children. This fracture break is incomplete leaving one side of the cortex
intact.
2. Closed fracture :- A closed fracture is the one where the haematoma
(blood clot)does not communicate with the outside.
3. Open fracture (Compound fracture ) :- In this type, the fracture
haematoma communicates with the outside through an open wound. It is a
serious injury through which infectious germs may enter into the body.

4. Pathological fracture :-This type of fracture occurs, due to pathological
lesions after a trivial violence in a weak bone. It may be due to
hyperparathyroidism.
5. Stress fracture :- It is a fracture occurring at a site in the bone, due to
repeated minor stresses over a long period of time.
6. Birth fracture :- It is a fracture occuring in the newborn babies due to
injury during delivery.

Hepatitis

An acute hepatitis may happen due to variety of causes. Its
manifestation is inflammation of the liver. Such inflammation may happen
due to viral infection. Non-infectious hepatitis can happen due to excessive
alcohol consumption. In early stage, the symptoms are not conspicuous. The
symptoms include fatigue, poor appetitie, nausea, vomiting, fever and
discomfort in upper right side of the abdomen. There is no specific
treatment. People are usually advised to take rest, and avoiding drinking of
alcohol.

Gall Stones

These are the stones of various sizes and content that form in the gall
bladder. The stone formation occurs in about 1/10 people, over 40 years of
age. The Gall stones are formed by bile. Bile is made up of cholesterol,
pigments and several salts.

Any alteration in the composition of the bile can cause the formation of stones. The stones are mostly formed of cholesterol. There is no obvious reason for such a formation. However, obesity is a risk factor.

High fat diet can also cause stone formation. In severe, complicated situations it may block the bile duct and cause jaundice.

Appendicitis (Appendix)

It is the inflammation of the appendix, leading to severe abdominal
pain. Appendix is a small blind ended tube found at the beginning of the
large intestine. This disorder is very common among adolescents. It is more
common in developed countries where diet contains less fibre food. The
inflammation causes blockage. The closed end of the appendix beyond the
blockage then becomes infected by bacteria.

The early symptoms includes sudden pain in the upper abdomen,
nausea with or without vomitting. It may also cause mild fever. If a
treatment is delayed the appendix may rupture and result in infection in the
abdomen. The serious infection is called as peritonitis. The treatment
involves the removal of appendix by surgery.

Hernia and Types

Hernia

Hernia is commonly called “ruptures”. This occurs at a weaker
region in the abdominal muscle.

Due to increased pressure in the abdomen, the muscles become streched at the weak point, the pressure may be due to lifting heavy weights, continuously.

Due to hernia, a visible bulge can develop. It will contain fatty tissues or part of the intestine. Abdominal hernias are common in men having heavy manual job.
In hernia, a section of intestine may become twisted and get traped
inside the bulge.

The blood supply may be cut off. This is known as strangulated hernia. If it causes severe pain immediate surgery is needed. Hernia can occur in other areas of the body.

Types of Hernia

1. Inguinial Hernia – a portion of the intestine pushes through inguinial
canal. This region is the weak spot.

2. Femoral Hernia – It occurs in the part of the groin where the femoral
vein and artery pass from the lower abdomen to the thigh, women who are
over weight (or) who have several pregnancies may be affected.

3. Umbilical Hernia – It develops in babies, behind the navel due to
weakness in the abdominal wall.
Hernia repair – For hernia often a simple surgery is needed. It is done by
using local or general anaesthesia.

Peptic ulcer

Peptic ulcer is refers to an eroded area of the tissue lining in the stomach or
duodenum. The lining of stomach or duodenum are protected from the
effects of HCl by a layer of mucous. If the mucous layer is damaged, the
acid may cause inflammation and erosion of the lining. It is known as peptic
ulcer. Ulcer is of two types namely, duodenal and gastric. Of the two,
duodenal ulcer is more common. It occurs in people in the age group of
25 – 45 years. Gastric ulcer is more common in persons above the age of 50
years. Peptic ulcer is a very common gastric ailment.

Causes for Peptic ulcer

The ulcer is mostly due to infections by a bacterium called
Helicobacter pylori. It may also be caused due to uncontrolled usage of
aspirin or certain anti inflammatory drugs such as Ibuprofen. Ulcer may also
be caused due to smoking, alcohol, coffiene and psychological stress. In
severe peptic ulcer, upper digestive tract endoscopy is done to assess the
extent of damage. A bleeding or perforated ulcer requires hospitalization.
Common treatment of ulcer is aimed at healing the ulcer and preventing its
recurrence. Life style changes such as giving up smoking and alcohol may
be required. Anxiety, stress, strain and worrying should be avoided.

Root Canal Treatment

Root Canal Treatment is a modern dental procedure to save a tooth in which the pulp (the living tissue within a tooth) has died or become untreatably diseased, usually as a result of extensive dental caries.

Steps involved in Root Canal Treatment

(1) A hole is drilled into the crown to remove all material from the pulp
chamber. The root canals are then cleaned with fine-tipped instruments. The
procedure is usually monitored by X-rays.

(2) The cavity is washed out, and antibiotic paste and a temporary filling
are packed into it. Some days later, the filling is removed and the canals are
checked for sterlity.

(3) When no infection can be detected, the cavity is filled with a sealing
paste and/or tapering solid “point” made of gutta – percha resin mixed with
zinc and bismuth oxides. The mouth of cavity is then sealed with cement.

Dental Caries (Tooth decay)

Post author By Mr. Padeepz
Post date September 7, 2018
No Comments on Dental Caries (Tooth decay)

Dental Caries (Tooth decay)

Tooth decay is the gradual erosion of enamel (the protective covering
of the tooth) and dentine (the substance below the enamel). Plaque
formation is the main cause of tooth decay. The most common sites of initial
decay are areas where plaque easily becomes trapped, such as the grinding
surfaces of the back teeth (which have minute grooves in them), the lateral
(side) edges of adjacent teeth, and near the gum line. Plaque consists of food
remains, salivary mucus by-products, and the bacteria that live in the mouth.
The bacteria feed mainly on the fermentable carbohydrates (simple sugars
and starches) in food, and in breaking them down, create an acid that
gradually destroys enamel, forming a cavity. If the process is not checked,
the dentine gets eroded. The cavity gets enlarged enabling the bacteria to
invade the pulp at the centre of the tooth and causes infection.

Symptoms of Dental Caries (Tooth decay):

Early decay does not usually cause any symptoms. The chief symptom
of advanced decay is tooth ache, which may be aggravated by eating very
sweet, hot or cold food. Decay may also cause bad breath.

Treatment for Dental Caries (Tooth decay) :

Treatment consists of the drilling away the area of decay and filling the
cavity with either dental amalgam (a mercury alloy) or cement (a composite
resin that matches the colour of the tooth). In cases of advanced decay, it
may be necessary to remove the infected pulp (the central, living part of a
tooth) and replace it with a filling or to extract the tooth.

Dislocation of joints

Dislocations Classification:

Related Topics in Zoology:

Mechanism of fracture

Healing of Bones in fracture

1. Inflammatory Phase

2. Repairative Phase

3. Remodelling phase

Physiotherapy and rehabilitation

Related Topics in Zoology:

Fractures

Fractures

Types of fractures :

Related Topics in Zoology:

Hepatitis

Related Topics in Zoology:

Gall Stones

Related Topics in Zoology:

Appendicitis (Appendix)

Related Topics in Zoology:

Hernia

Types of Hernia

Related Topics in Zoology:

Peptic ulcer

Causes for Peptic ulcer

Related Topics in Zoology:

Root Canal Treatment

Steps involved in Root Canal Treatment

Related Topics in Zoology:

Dental Caries (Tooth decay)

Symptoms of Dental Caries (Tooth decay):

Treatment for Dental Caries (Tooth decay) :

Related Topics in Zoology: