The League of Nations did not succeed in its prime aim of settling disputes among nations through peaceful means. Its failure was not its fault. It was indeed the failure of the member nations because they were responsible for it.
1) The United States of America, whose President was responsible f o r founding the League of Nations, could not become a member. Hence the league looked like a building without deep foundation.
2) Whenever the member nations were not happy with the attitude of the League, they were permitted to leave the Organisation.
3) In 1931 Japan captured Manchuria and renamed it Manchuko and made it a puppet state. When the League protested against this, Japan resigned from the League. It weakened the League.
4) The League of Nations did not have a permanent force or army of i t s own to implement its policies.
5) The rise of dictatorship in Italy, Japan and Germany weakened t h e chances of success of the League.
6) The statesmen who dominated the League lacked practical wisdom. Their approach remained somewhat Utopian and it began to be called by some as “Geneva Conference of Fools”.
7) The above factors where responsible for the failure of league of nations. Yet it tried its level best to solve international problems and paved way for the formation of U.N.O after the second world war.
The following were the fundamental principles of the League of Nations.
It should promote unity among nations and keep peace and security in the world.
The member nations of the League should respect and safeguard the frontiers of the neighboring nations without indulging in acts of aggression.
The member nations should solve the problems arising among themselves only through the League of Nations. They should wait atleast for three months to hear from the League of Nations.
If any of the member nations would indulge in war violating the conditions of the League, the affected nations would be saved, even by resorting to the weapons of war.
All treaties contrary to the principles of the League of Nations should be given up.
Organs of the League of Nations
The GeneralAssembly
The Council
The Secretariat
An International Court of Justice
International Labour Organization.
Achievements of the League of Nations
The League of Nations succeeded in solving various problems during its existence for about 20 years which deserve appreciation.
1) It settled a problem between Finland and Sweden regarding the ownership of Aaland Island in Baltic.
2) It solved a boundary dispute in Silesia and prevented a war between Poland and Germany.
3) It settled a dispute between Greece and ltalyoverthe island of Corfu.
4) It avoided a war between Greece and Bulgaria over the border disputes.
5) In 1926 Germany was admitted as a member of the League of Nations followed by Soviet Russia in 1934.
6) It solved a border issue between Peru and Columbia.
7) Through its other organs the League prevented the spread of many diseases.
8) It extended its helping hand in solving the problems of refugees and lepors. It whole heartedly promoted cultural co-operation among the nations.
9) It attempted to raise the standard of Education in various states.
10) The international Court of Justice handled more than thirty cases. It delivered judgments in some cases and in some others gave advisory opinions.
In the flames of World War I, Europe was consumed. It made the western countries to realize some international organization must be set up to prevent war in future.
On the initiative of Woodrow Wilson, the President of USA, in January, 1919 a Peace Conference was held in Paris and the representatives of forty two countries took part in it.
A council of ten with two representatives each from America, Britain, France, Italy and Japan was formed.
They worked hard to make the council function well. But Francis Clemenceau of France, Lloyd George of England, Woodrow Wilson of America and Orlando of Italy, played a major role in the conference.
The League of Nations was founded on the basis of their ideas.
In the Paris Peace Conference a suggestion was given for the establishment of an organization of nations.
It was thought that only such an organization could prevent any future wars in the world. Before the foundation of such an organization, other institutions also came up.
They were:-
The League of Nations Society (1915),The world League for Peace (1917),and The League of free nations Association (1918) and the League of Nations Union.
On the 14th February, 1919 the Peace Conference examined a note on maintaining peace in the world.
According to it on January, 20th 1920, the League of Nations was officially founded with its headquarters in Geneva,Switzerland.
The First World War came to an end by the Pans Peace Conference of 1919.
The main personalities of the conference were, Clemenceau of France, Lloyd George of Britain, Orlando of Italy and President Woodrow Wilson of America.
The Peace Treaty with Germany was signed and it was called as Treaty of Versailles.
Separate treaties were also concluded with other defeated countries.
The Treaty of St Germaine was concluded with Austria,the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, the Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria and the Treaty of Sevares with Turkey.
It was on the Fourteen Points put forward by President Woodrow Wilson the terms of the treaties were drafted.
The important terms of the treaties were the following.
The covenant of the League of Nations was drawn up.
A huge war indemnity was imposed on Germany.
Her army was Germany surrendered Alsace and Lorraine to France.
She also gave up the Saar coal field to be occupied by France for a period of 15 years.
The overseas possessions of Germany were divided among the victorious nations.
Monarchy was abolished in Germany, Russia, Austria and the Republic of Austria and Hungarywas recognised.
The city of Danzig was internationalized. In many countries Monarchies gave place to New Republics of Czechoslovakia and Poland were born
Lithuvania, Latvia and Esthonia were granted
The victorious nations forced the defeated nations with unfair treaties, it sowed the seeds for another world
The First World War began in July,28, 1914 and lasted till November,11,1918.
The countries which were on the side of Germany were called as the Central Powers and those on the side of Britain as the Allies. Artillery, Tanks and Submarines were used in the war.
War in the Western Front
Germany started the offensive and she invaded France by crossing Belgium. The British and French forces were not able to stop the advance of the German forces.
But in the Battle of Marne, the Allies were able to hold them in check. Both the armies dug trenches and fought from them.
War in the Eastern Front
The Russian forces attacked both Germany and Austria. But Russia suffered a defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg.
When Austria was facing a crisis, Germany came to its aid. German forces inflicted heavy losses on the Russian forces and forced them to withdraw from the Austrian territories.
War in the Near East Front
In October 1914, Turkey entered the war extending her support to the Central Powers.
This was a terrible blow because communications between Russia and theAllies were cut off.
The British made an attempt to capture Gallipoli Peninsula with a view of controlling the Dardanelles and capturing Constantinople.
But the Dardanelles expedition was an utter failure.
Bulgaria and Romania In the War
The failure of the British in the Dardanelles expedition emboldened Bulgaria to join the side of the Central Powers in 1915.
Romania joined the Alliesin 1916.
War on the Sea
While the British navy commanded the North Sea, the Mediterranean sea was dominated by the French and Italian navy with the British support.
In the Battle of Dogger Bank a German battle cruiser was destroyed by the British.
In spite of the heavy losses sustained by both the parties in the Battle of Jutland in 1916, the German fleet retreated to the port.
Since it could not break the naval blockade of Britain,it used submarines to sink the ships of the Allies.
Entry of US In the First World War
In 1917 Germany drowned four merchant ships of America, including Lusitania with her submarines.
More than hundred Americans died in this incident which made the American president Woodrow Wilson angry.
Hence, on the 6111 April 1917 Woodrow Wilson declared war on Germany.
Withdrawal of Russia
Russia suffered major reversal in the war. She suffered heavily both in men and materials.
The discontent of the Russian people found expression in the October Revolution of 1917.
The Czarist government was overthrown by Lenin and Russia withdrew from the war. Russia made peace with Central PowersatBrest-Litovskin 1918.
End of the war
In the beginning, the Central Powers had some victories but soon their defenses began to break.
The Germans began to retreat. The resistance of Turkey and Bulgaria began to crumble. Austria sued for peace.
In November 1918, Kaiser William II of Germany abdicated and fled to Holland. Germany sued for peace on November 11,1918.
The great war known as World War-1 made a mockery of the peace and abundance prophesied by the statesmen and scientists of the 19th century.
It was called as the World War as it engulfed all the countries of the world directly or indirectly.
The war had its impact on the material and non material resources of the entire world.
Causes for the First World War
Ambition of Germany
The unification of Germany in 1870 made Germany industrially developed.
She needed additional markets and raw materials. Her colonies in Africa were not potentially rich as possessed by England and France.
Kaiser William II of Germany believed that his country alone was competent to rule the whole world.
He could not tolerate the British saying that the sun never sets in the British Empire.
Germany needed colonies not only as a sign of her world importance but also for her growing population.
In order to protect Germany he increased the strength of the army and stationed a fleet at Heligoland in North Sea.
The aggressive policy adopted by the German ruler led to the First World War.
Secret Alliances
The European powers allied themselves into opposing groups and signed several secret military alliances which led suspicion among the countries and finally resulted in the First World War.
The two opposing groups were:
Triple Alliance-1882-ltaly, Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Triple Entente-1907-France, Britain and Russia.
Lack of International Organization
There was no effective international Organization to reconcile conflicting interests of nations.
There was anarchy in the International relations of the various countries.
The Hague conference of 1882 and 1907 which tried to do some work of reconciliation failed to show any results.
Militarism
Militarism was a strong factor for war. European Statesmen often said “If you wish for peace prepare for war”.
Germany, France and Russia adopted a new programme of arms expansion.
Great Britain increased its, already large, naval expenditure.
Germany, in fear of an anticipated attack from France initiated military expansion.
Colonialand Commercial Rivalry
Since Geographical discovery of the 15th and 16th century there was a race for colonies among the European countries.
The Industrial revolution increased the demand for raw material and market for their manufactured goods.
Germany made a great progress after her unification. Her goods flooded in the international market which made Britain angry.
The Moroccan Problem
When France occupied Morocco it was recognized by Britain. But it was opposed by Kaiser William II of Germany who wanted to declare Morocco an international colony.
He sent two warships-Berlin and Panther to Morocco. When Britain intervened Germany withdrew her ships from Morocco. It wanted to revenge Britain.
The Balkan Problem
The Balkan countries like Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece and Montenegro proclaimed their independence from the Ottoman Empire due to its weakness.
In 1912 the Balkan countries declared war on Turkey. This is known as the First Balkan War. Turkey was defeated.
The war came to an end by the Treaty of London. Dispute arose between Serbia and Bulgaria in sharing the spoils of the war.
In 1913, the other Balkan countries declared war on Bulgaria. This is known as the Second Balkan War.
Turkey and Bulgaria approached Germany to regain their territories.
It resulted in the war.
Frenchinterest
France wanted to get back Alsace and Lorraine which she lost during the Franco – Prussian war to Germany.
France thought that the industrial development of Germany was due to those territories.
So she was waiting for a chance to get back those territories.
Immediate Cause
The Congress of Berlin, 1878 gave the right to Austria – Hungary to govern Bosnia and Herzegovina but not to annex it.
These territories should have gone to Serbia since the inhabitants were Slavs as in Serbia.
But in 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina against the Congress of Berlin.
It created rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.
Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia with humiliating terms. When Serbia ignored the ultimatum, Austria declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914.
Russia moved her troops to support the cause of Serbia against Austria.
Germany declared war on Russia. France by her alliance went to help Russia.
So Germany declared war on France. When Britain joined France against Germany the First World War started.
The political condition i.e. the rivalry among the native rulers rather than the motive of the British instigated imperialism in India.
The England East India Company was formed in 1600 in England and later it set up a trading post at Surat with the permission of Mughal Emperor, Jahangir.
In the next few years the Mughals granted Britain the right to trade and to establish factories in exchange for English naval protection to the Mughal Empire, which faced Portuguese sea power.
In 1664, the French East India Company was established by Colbert, a minister of Louis XIV of France and opened trading centres in India.
There started rivalry between France and Britain. It led to Carnatic wars resulting in the uprooting of the French influence in India.
In 1757, the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah, opposed the British attempts to use Duty free Trade in Bengal.
It resulted in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 led by Robert Clive. The East India Company was granted undisputed right to trade free of tax in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and the 24 parganas near present Calcutta.
The Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II after its success in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.
It marked the beginning of Company’s formal rule in India. Lord Wellesley conquered number of states in India by his Subsidiary Alliance.
Lord Dalhousie annexed many more states by his Doctrine of Lapse. In 1857, the Great Indian Revolt against the English East India Company’s rule broke out and later it was suppressed.
In 1858, the administration of India was passed to the British Crown by Queen Victoria’s Proclamation.
India continued to be under the rule of British Government till her independence in 1947.
Imperialism in China
It is an interesting thing to study about imperialism in China. The Chinese regarded themselves as superior, and the only truly civilized in the world.
The other Asian traders adopted the Chinese culture but not the European traders.
Hence the trade with these foreign powers was restricted to the cities of Canton and Macao from 1757 by the Chinese Emperor.
But the Europeans were irritated by the Chinese behavior.
To India, the British imported sufficient British goods from England for Indian goods.
It avoided them paying in gold. But the Chinese restricted all trades to the specific ports under the supervision of government officials.
The Chinese sold tea and coffee to the British but always wanted payment in gold. Over time, the British became worried that huge amounts of gold were ending up in China. So they found out a short cut.
Industrial Revolution in European countries resulted in a great increase in production. So it created a great demand for raw materials and new markets in Asian and African continents where the industrial revolution had not yet spread.
They could not find market in Europe as they followed ‘Protective Trade Policy’. The purchasing power of the people was also less due to capitalism. It also introduced a great progress in the means of transport and communication.
The telegraph system linked the whole world and reduced great distances. The development of railways speeded up the movement of goods between colonies and the mother country.
So it was easier to bring raw materials and to take the finished goods to the markets in the interior parts of the colonies in Asia and Africa.
National security
The sense of national security and self -sufficiency among the European political groups instigated colonial imperialism. Often Presidents or Prime Ministers worked towards colonial imperialism owing to the influence of business or some other interest.
Nationalism
The later part of the nineteenth century saw extreme nationalistic ideals in Europe. Germany and Italy were unified. Many nations developed pride over their race, culture and language and started feeling superior to other countries.
They felt that acquisition of colonies would enhance the prestige of their nations. Imperialism became the fashion of the age.
The Europeans felt that it was ‘White Man’s burden’ to civilize the backward and uncivilized native people of Africa and Asia. This was another cause for Imperialism.
Balance of power
The concept of Balance of Power was one of the driving factors. European Nations were forced to acquire new colonies to achieve a balance with their neighbors and competitors.
Discovery of New routes
The discovery of new routes to African and Asian continents promoted the spirit of imperialism. The discovery of sea routes paved the way for the traders and soldiers to exploit the abundant wealth of the countries.
Growth of Population
The population growth and its impact-unemployment, forced the Europeans to emigrate in search of new lands and careers abroad.
State of Anarchy
There was no international organization to enact and enforce laws for nations to maintain peace and security among countries before the First World War. This state of anarchy supported the colonial race.
